A brief note on the metaphysics of Hegel for the students

Dharmaram Vidya Kshetram

Faculty of Philosophy

Assignment

Metaphysics of George Wilhelm Fredric Hegel (A German Idealist)

Bro. Sebin Varghese

(Reg.no. 1414728)

An Assignment on the history Metaphysics of George Wilhelm Fredric Hegel 
(A German Idealist)

Bangalore

October, 2015

Preface

A genius of the 18^th Century Philosophical school of thought, George Wilhelm Fredric Hegel (German Idealist) who developed a metaphysical structure, deeply swayed by the Aristotelian as well as Kantian philosophical teachings and explorations. However, we see idealism in the philosophical discourses of Aristotle and Plato, the Ancient Greek Philosophers; it comes to an unqualified shape in the contributions of Hegel and Bradley. The foremost metaphysical theme of Hegel surrounds over ideal-ism or idea-ism. More over his input of Absolute idealism to the world of Philosophy stands as the indispensable or key point of his entire philosophical arguments or discourse. The works of Hegel are to be twirled over for a facet encounter with this German Idealist. The following works of Hegel such as “The phenomenology of the Spirit”, “The Philosophy of Right”, and “The Science of Logic” can be an enormous aid in the critical study of Hegelianism.

Idealistic Metaphysics

Hegel was deeply influenced or in other way to the highest degree indebted to the ideas of Aristotle. The speculations of Kant made Hegel to construct a novel ontological argument on the idealism as well. The metaphysics of Kant is not a science rather it enhance the idea of values. For Immanuel Kant metaphysical entities are not objects of scientific enquiry but of Faith. For Kant the three ideas of Reason such as God, Soul and the World are not constitutive rather they are regulative of Knowledge and postulates of practical reason. The dialectic method applied by Hegel was a unique shift or knowledge seen in the Hegelian approach. The dialectical method is considered as the tool in the Hegelian metaphysics. This dialectical method can unfold the Absolute itself through the triple steps of Thesis

(Universal concepts), Antithesis (Contradiction) and Synthesis (the union of these two). This triad of metaphysical analysis, such as Thesis, Antithesis and Synthesis are demonstrated unmistakably in the metaphysical deduction of Categories. The critiques authored by Kant such as “The critique of Pure Reason”, “The critique of Practical Reason” and “The critique of Judgment” give more description on these areas, for e.g. the first concept in the metaphysical deduction of categories are the Unity, Plurality, and Totality. Here Unity is the Thesis, Plurality is the antithesis, and totality is the synthesis.

Hegelian metaphysical identity proves to be in connection with the Dialectical method. The didactic method is based on the assumption of the identity of thought and things. Hegel states that it is thought that passes from the abstract concepts to the concrete and from empty to the fuller ideas. Ultimately, things are nothing but a system of thoughts.

Idealism teaches the supremacy of spirit over Matter. The most important kind of Idealism propagated by Hegel was the absolute Idealism. Absolute Idealism coaches that matter is not Mind, but mind remains as the foundation to know matter in its fullness. Hegel would further say that Mind is the Key to understand matter. It is the “self-conscious” mind that rank the creation through matter, life, and the Human mind. Matter is considered as unintelligible without a mind and matter is governed or regulated by the laws of science. Nevertheless, laws are eventually thoughts of each rational being. It is intact to say that Hegel was influenced by the Aristotelian judgment of idealism that would edify, that the height form is the indwelling spirit and reason of the world, which moulds all things. It is not the reiteration but to corroborate that, self-conscious mind has become the basal category of the idealism. The primacy of the spirit is valued more than any other ideas. Dealing with Reality in a comprehensive approach is

the area of expertise of Hegel. He regards philosophy is the product of reflective reasoning. This would help to have precise and deep insight into the idea of the true, the eternal and the absolute potent that reveals in the world. He teaches that this absolute dwells in the finite and not in the other world. The nature of this absolute is the reason, spirit that is in a flex of constant movement towards perfection. The Hegelian philosophy brings the decisive expression of the Absolute.

Conclusion

The absolute idealism expounds the idea of absolute consciousness. The absolute is all reality. The monistic expression if Hegelian idealism and the explanation of the external world as the expression of the Gods self-creation say that there is no reality outside God. This reality is the act of God’s Will. The most important and decisive expression from Hegel is that the real is rational and the rational is real. This application of Reason penetrates the ideas of Kantian Dualism. To conclude Hegel promulgates that Synthesis (Unity in the Plurality) Is the Goal of Philosophical expeditions and investigations.

Bibliography

Masih, Y. George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), “A Critical History of Western Philosophy”. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1994. Pg. 400-452.

Wallace A. William. “The Elements of Philosophy: A Compendium for Philosophers and Theologians.” New York: St.Pauls, 1977. Pg. 305-325.

History of the Abnormal Psychology a succinct note for the students.

Dharmaram Vidya Kshetram

Faculty of Philosophy

Assignment

History of the Abnormal Psychology

Bro. Sebin Varghese

(Reg.no. 1414728)

An Assignment on the history of the Abnormal Psychology.

Bangalore

November, 2015

Preface

Psychology, a strenuous, diverse and complex discipline, that advocates  systematic and scientific study of growth, development, social issues, thinking and problem solving, abnormal thought and behavior. Behavior is always enthralling in human being and animals as far as psychology is concerned. The methodical researches and studies in the field of Psychology render scientific knowledge of thought and behavior. In history, perspective and applications Prof. Kenneth Keith[1] explained how psychological questions arose from the philosophical considerations and frameworks. The shrewd study of the abnormal psychology the student comes across the various dimensions of personality, highlighting process that affects the normal and abnormal facets of personality says Prof. Janet Carlson[2]. Through this succinct notes, collected and geared up as per the norms for an assignment in the faculty of Psychology can render concise data’s on the Historical development of Abnormal Psychology and the amendment of the stereotype stance of the society towards the victims with the assistance of modern science and technology.

Abnormal Behavior

 Behavior of some human beings can be considered as odd and strange, which is subjected to and elucidated through raising certain valid questions. There are several ways, utilized by Psychologist to wrap up a behavior, as normal or the opposite. Abnormality will be sewed to a particular behavior if (a) it deviates from average or socially accepted, (b) away from the ideal behavior, (c) if it generates sever stress on the individual, (d) and advertising of inability to function effectively in the society[3]. In Psychology, the normal distribution of the Qualities of interest follows a Bell Shaped curve where the normal traits of behavior are not pushed to both extremes. Another method to check the quality of the normal behavior involves how well an individual’s actions align with established ideals for that particular behavior[4]. The Abnormal behavior can be developed in any individual without any reservation. It must not be taken as a chance to blame the abstract reality of fate or God as a punishment for the past committed Sins or mistakes. The severity of the stress also can be resulted in the formation of the abnormal behavior. The sense of personal distress or Subjective Distress[5] is also a helpful aid to discriminate the normal and abnormal behavior. This abnormality can cause inability to function effectively.

Historical Views of the Abnormal Behavior

Human Behavior is as old as the History of the existence of Human Being. Since then human behavior exhibited several abnormal traits. Prior to the 16^th century, most of the mental disorders were believed and understood to be caused by the dread influence of demonic control, witchcraft, Satan worship, and or divine involvement or possession. It was considered as aberrant even centuries ago for it failed to cop up with the standards of the then time. For e.g. Anorexia nervosa[6] was treated with exorcism, as were many nervous disorders and to the extreme cases they were burned at the stake. Certain condition of the victims of mental disorder was pathetic and odd even to think of. The particular behavior that was strange or unusual to then age was considered as outright bizarre behavior

1.               Ancient Times

As we revise, the early approaches towards the psychiatric victims from the discoveries and study of Philosophers, such as Hippocrates[7] (460-377 B.C.) who said, the disproportionate level of body fluids[8] caused temperament[9] disorders, and early A.D. philosophers, such as Plato, Aristotle, and Galen were more critical and comprehensive in nature than the followed centuries. It had the touch of modernity with sympathy, compassion, mercy and dealt with them in a humanitarian temperament. Their views were in relation with the views of the 21^st century.

Today, our 21^st century world sees abnormal psychology in a very different light than centuries past practiced. The need of kind treatment and tapping to the root cause of each disorders pushing aside the traditional views such as demoniac possession, curse from God etc. the expertise of then era even find out the possibility of generating mental disorders due to physical injuries such as heard injury and the possibility of inheriting as hereditary.

The 12^th through 16^th centuries saw a turn to cruelty in dealing with the mentally ill. Imprisonment, starvation, severe beating, and restraint with chains quickly became the preferred method of dealing with the mentally ill. 

Trephining[10] burrowing or scraping holes and the use of bleeding[11] were the major methods used frequently in the history as treatment because even the ancient Greek societies explained this strange behavior as the result of evil possession or supernatural and spiritual phenomena.

Modern Times

18^th century marked certain advanced studies and this age of enlightenment gave importance to the notions such as humanitarianism. As a result, the chained customs of past era where cruel practices of beating the ill, chaining, secluding from the society were changed as part of the experiment and that came out as an accomplishment. Trained medical practitioners were welcomed to render treatment or medical assistance to the victims and the name Asylum[12] started to proliferate in this era.

The 19^th century witnessed a drastic change in the approach towards the ill. Dorothea Dix[13], was one among the prominent reformers who brought the real dignity of psychic people as incredible to be respected. By the end of this century a number of new theories were advanced to offer treatment alternatives. In that Emil Kraepelin deserves more attention. The Somatogenic[14] belief was taken backward steps and advocated the psychogenic[15] theory.

Along with the rapid change, that occurred in the diverse fields of American terrain the 20^th century made prominent, remarkable progression in the treatment of mentally ill people. The National Institute of Mental Health was established, the Hill-Burton Act[16], which provided funding for mental health agencies, was passed, and the age of "deinstitutionalization[17]" began. Along with this rapport, Sigmund Freud's theory along with his colleague Josef Breuer on mental and emotional disorders was gaining worldwide interest. For a large part of the population, Talk-therapy and psychoanalysis became widely used. Alcoholics Anonymous[18] was founded in 1939. By the end of the 20^th century, A.A had gained a projected around 1 million members in America alone. The fear and discomfort towards the mentally ill were reduced and people started to report cases for the betterment of the victim. Research, in turn, led to greater developments in therapies were made-up to help millions of people anguishing from a variety of mental disorders, as well as the development of numerous drugs that were prescribed in great excess during this century, often to the detriment of the patient.  

Early 21^st century research mainly focused on the study of neurotransmitters, hormones, genetics, and brain matter. This research has, and will continue to, lead to alternative treatments that are geared to changing, or "fixing," brain chemistry. Hormonal imbalances, and neurotransmission problems in the brain, were studied deeply with minimal of seldom prescription of medications. This present era mainly stressed on a pill-free treatment to the ill that resulted sever problems to the patient as side effect. Some can be highly addictive, and often very difficult to withdraw from. The latest investigation brought forward that the use of Omega 3 and Omega 6 fatty acids are able to decrease the onset of psychotic disorders, such as bi-polar[19] and paranoid Schizophrenia[20]. These conclusion are very exhilarating, for the reason that big amount of Omega 3 have no side effects, help ease depression, and actually fabricate good benefits to the heart, skin, and eyes of the consumer.  Later periods the more look was to the Humanistic perspective on the Abnormal Behavior which centers on rendering human worth and dignity. It incorporates the Human values, interests and welfare.

The Medical Representation and Psychotic Elucidations

            The institutionalizations of the mentally disordered men were mushrooming in a larger scale. Moral therapy[21]that gained a drastic support and appreciation with a large scale approval fell because of the development and consideration of the medical Doctors, as mentally disorder is biological aspect, which demands treatment. In a way the emergence of Medical Model[22] enhanced with reference to the explanation and treatment of the Psychological disorders.

Influence of Religion

During the renaissance era, abnormal behavior was considered as something by the possession of Evil powers especially the witch craft. The church stood a firm step to punish or hunt the roots of evil practices and practitioners. Hysteria[23] and Paranoia[24] ran high and as people regarded the eradication of witches as both civic and religious duty.

Conclusion

Individuals with serious mental discomfort can be seen all through the eras. They are the victims of severe mental disturbance and people who are far away from the reality around them. These victims will be facing a constant failure in t managing their common personal, familial and societal activities. Yet to the extreme cases the society can seclude them only because of the bizarre behavior they possess. These abnormalities are tend to be noticed by the significant people with respect to the individual and put into the notice of a psychological expertise who can find the root or hidden cause for this strange behavior in one. Behavior is dynamic and reactive to environmental as well as internal interests. As events and circumstances unfold the influence behavior, its location on the continuum can shift in one direction or the other.

Bibliography

Carlson, Janet F. “Handbook of Psychology: Personality and Abnormal Psychology.” Vol. VI. New York: Viva Books, 2014.

Comer, Ronald J. “Fundamentals of Abnormal Psychology.” New York: Worth Publishers, 1999.

Genova, L. “Still Alice.” New York: Pocket Books, 2009.

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[1] Kenneth Keith is a Psychology Professor in the University of San Diego, who is recognized as one of the major figures associated with the development field of Psychology.

[2] Dr. Carlson, Professor in the Buros Center for Testing at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln.

[3] Ellis, A. “Addictive behaviors and personality Disorder.” Social Policy 29 (1988): 25-30.

[4] Carlson, Janet F. “Handbook of Psychology: Personality and Abnormal Psychology.” Pg.24.

[5] Subjective distress is the awareness of an Individual’s experience on his perceived level of stress, dissatisfaction, despair, tension, confusion, fear and anxiety. Carlson, Janet F. “Handbook of Psychology”, Vol. VI. Pg.26.

[6] A disorder marked by the pursuit of extreme thinness and by an extreme loss of weight.

[7] Hippocrates used an empirical approach to explain the subnormal behavior by observing and describing instances of mental illness, including epilepsy and Phobias. He also developed a biological explanation for the abnormal behavior.

[8] His study propagated the knowledge that disorders can be caused due to the imbalance of body’s four vital fluids or humors: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm.

[9] Four temperaments: Choleric, Sanguine, melancholic, Phlegmatic.

[10] Trephining was one of the extreme practices employed by ancient people to free an individual from evil spirit by drilling a hole in 1-inch diameter in to the skull of a living person alive. Carlson, Janet F. “Handbook of Psychology: Personality and Abnormal Psychology.” Pg.30.

[11] Purposely opening a vein and allowing blood to flow out of the body.

[12] A Home first held in the 16^th C for the mentally ill people where their needs are met by the NGO’s or any Governmental institutions. Later most became virtual prisons.

[13] A nurse (1802- 1887) and social reformer who began a revolution in the way people viewed the mentally ill. She gained worldwide recognition for bringing the inhumane treatment of mental patients to the attention of the public. She established and enlarged 32 mental hospitals in America, Europe, and Japan, and changed treatment practices to those of a humanitarian nature. 

[14] Originating or arising from the bodily structures.

[15] Theory that came up with the teaching that emotional or psychological pressures give rise to mental disturbances.

[16] The hospital survey and construction act is U.S federal law passed in 1946.

[17] A movement that began in the 1960’^s and encouraged discharging in to the community psychiatric patients many of whom had been hospitalized for many years.

[18] A self-help organization that provides support and guidance for persons with alchahol abuse or dependence.

[19] Am experience of both lows of depression and the highs of mania.

[20] Items that show bizarre or unusual thoughts or behavior, including extreme withdrawal, delusions or hallucinations. 

[21]  Humane and supportive approach to treating individual with mental disorders as normal people who have shouldered unusually heavy burdens.

[22] View of mental disorders as illness that result from biological abnormalities and diseases that should be treated with biologically based practices such as medication.

[23] A disorder in which physical functioning is changed or lost, without an apparent physical cause.

[24] Items that shoe abnormal suspiciousness and delusions of grandeur or persecution.

Short reflection on St.Thomas Aquinas

St.Thomas Aquinas

Introduction

            The compositions of St Thomas Aquinas are like an inexhaustible spring. The theological inventions and discoveries of Aquinas can’t have a consistent interpretation or comprehension without a philosophical foretaste. For Aquinas both Philosophy and Theology go Hand in hand. This illustration welcomed his reflection to rapport with an ever superb and inevitable conclusion that, Philosophy is the Handmaid of Theology. This would harmonize the radical appreciation of both wings as they are not contradictory but complimentary. The teachings and thoughts of Aristotle moved this ardent rationalist and fideist to break through the versatile faith practices by rationalizing the faith lived and promulgating a fresh, concrete and substantial arise to both faith and reason. Fame added to his crown not effortless succulent colours of blue, red and green instead it gilded his whole life as a great teacher and a teacher of truth itself. The inevitable and incompatible contributions of St. Aquinas made him unique and an extraordinary persona in the milieu opened by rationalism and fideism. Here in this assignment it is a self-effacing attempt to study over his theory of the existence of God from the point of a philosophy preparatory student. The book that is consulted for this piece of exertion is St.Thomas Aquinas, the teacher of truth by Francis John Selman. The 2^nd chapter commerce with God, gives a better comprehensiveness in order to strengthen the faith that we embrace as Christian.

            “Theo” for Aquinas is a deliberate discourse on God in depth and lucidity (sermo de deo)The knowledge that we have on God is restricted and proficient only by the light of reason and it is quite difficult for us to reach this Y-junction of well- informed state about God unless we are divinely enlightened by His revelation .The natural or innate reason in us help us to be a sign post to attain the goal that God exist or it is definite and in certitude that we proclaim the existence of god. The strong insist of Aquinas was that we cannot completely twig the idea of what god is? The deficiency of this knowledge about god is, because the divine light is hidden from us on account of his simplicity. The strive we have in ourselves indisputably can award this celestial light to us as a grace. This same nature of god and expression of knowledge of god is articulated by the ancient upanishadic teachings. For e.g. in Brhadranyaka Upanishad the best way of expressing the existence of God is Neti.... Neti, which would mean “not this not this”.

Coming to the core point or ways that elucidate the idea of St Thomas Aquinas to substantiate the idea or theory of Existence of god plays its key role in five arguments put forward by this theologian. These arguments he calls as the five ways that which can be found at the same time in Aristotle’s description to show the existence of God.

            The first way that he argues to explicit that god exist, is in terms of motion that prevails in this world. He argues that one thing is moved by another must come back to same thing that which moves without being moved. For Aquinas this being which is not affected by the movement is known as God which promotes him to cry in belief as (Quod Dicunt omnes Deum). 

            The second way lays pressure on the idea of the series of one thing that becomes an agent in causing another. This serious of cause put in examination finally result in the target where we reach a cause that which has no cause. Here we can’t conclude that God is the cause of himself, because there is nothing caused in God.

            The third argument he puts forward in order to make clear and expound the existence of god he endorses the theory of contingent things. For Thomas the synonym used instead of contingent is the “possibles”. For a contingent thing to be existed in one more thing in its full length and core fullness there must be an attachment of a necessary thing to each and every contingent being. This necessary being for Aquinas is God.

            The fourth argument goes as we could not talk of things being more or less as just instead we measure more or less things by applying them in the balance of justice. More or less, in its grade everything that exists has the ultimate cause of existence and its goodness attributed to originate from another ultimate goodness in order to exist in that ultimate goodness in its extreme apex.

            His fifth and final argument is generally called as the teleological argument guiding itself to the permitted end result guided by the theory, things are directed by another or they direct themselves in the other hand. For Thomas this world is not an accident instead the consequence of a man who looked-for and intended for it. This objective of God calls back the creatures to his own place of abode at the end being one with him in spiritual union or communion.

            As conclusion he argues that all creatures are created for a definite purpose in harmony with the design or idea (rationes) of them in the divine word or logos. Our reason will exhaust in itself if our rationality hunt for the existence of God of supreme wisdom. Here all the more the conclusion that can be produced to narrate the existence of God would be more acceptable in saying that “How God exist not” but “how doesn’t He exist”. This plunge for the knowledge of the existence of God bring us back to the wakefulness that our being or mind come to rest in that essence or truth of God as our final intention. This destination is torched by the shimming divine luminosity that enlighten our brains and faith alike to live a level-headed and disciplined faith life and to reinforce our believes. This knowledge satiates our unfathomable desire to be in close association with that Supreme Being a day which is unknown to us.

Critical Analysis.

            The 5 ways of St. Thomas Aquinas is a bona fide allocation of both faith and rational aspects to men to believe and live rationally than a superstitious animal. But one of the ways that speaks about the change which never happens to the Supreme Being is not that so adequate according to my perception. Albeit it may lead to flawlessness I try the best I can to scrutinize this particular point in terms of the life of Jesus the incarnated son and one of the persons in the Trinity.

            If God is changeless and an independent being God the son and one of the persons in trinity who claimed that “I and my father are one” (John 10:30) made a serious change in the independency of God being depend to the human beings. If it is so the continuation of Jesus as a human being and at the same time as a divine person came down to the lineage of David and became the part of history changed the conception of Aquinas gently. So how can we calculate approximately with our reason on the starting point of the theory of Thomas the way of change has not happened to God the Supreme Being. Though it is a substantial change, as a human being, (“rather, he made himself nothing by taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness”. Philippians 2:7) Jesus underwent the Accidental change too. This means that the independency of God is abridged for a better foundation or KNOSIS for the world and especially for the humanity.  

1) (Ref: St.Thomas Aquinas teacher of truth: Francis Selman, pgs 6-10)

prepared by

Bro.Sebin Varghese B.

Barnabite Vidya Bhavan, Bangalore.